The autonomy of autonomy: On Jürgen Habermas's <i>Auch eine Geschichte der Philosophie</i>

Major books like Auch eine Geschichte der Philosophie (AGP)1 start from and develop a single (although complex) idea. This idea has been present in Habermas's work for some time. It can be traced back to the core project of Frankfurt School, tradition Horkheimer Adorno's Dialectic Enlightenment Horkheimer's Critique Instrumental Reason, reconstructing genesis criticizing one-sided forms rationality that lead positivism, scientism, other reductionist accounts morality social life.2 The critique naturalism Habermas developed over past 20 years leads AGP marks most recent development this theme; however, it life-long preoccupation, if one thinks, example, Technik und Wissenschaft als ‘Ideologie’ 1968. When comes reflecting on modernity, or what now calls “entgleisende Moderne” (derailed modernity), discussions religion have not absent his either, reflections Bloch, Scholem, Benjamin, Horkheimer, Adorno. Take, analysis Benjamin's alternative ideology critique, namely, “rettende Kritik” (redemptive salvaging critique), which tries hold onto moments had the—to certain extent messianic—potential save us path historical catastrophe.3 Furthermore, dialogues with theologians he “transcendence within,”4 still upholds. “But only secular side, too, remains sensitive force articulation inherent religious languages will search reasons aim at universal acceptability an unfair exclusion religions public sphere, nor sever society important resources meaning. In any event, boundaries between are fluid. Determining these disputed should therefore seen as cooperative task requires both sides take perspective side.”8 “One such translation salvages substance term is concept “man image God” into identical dignity all men deserves unconditional respect.”9 Seen light, grand reconstruction Übersetzung” learning process, reaching juncture Axial Age. point aware importance “redemptive translations” view process open-ended, so postmetaphysical thought product cognitive progress same time existing normative potential open further dialogical attitude (“eine lernbereit dialogische Einstellung zu religiösen Überlieferungen,” I, p. 79). major determines structure tone book. For hand, narrative secularization, course includes overcoming emancipatory progress, leaving confines when developing autonomy reason human agency.10 According primarily vindicative genealogy, simply contingent processes; rather, critical authority evaluating counts generally justifiable (I, pp. 71, 111). Genese (genesis) Geltung (validity) remain distinct. Yet, dialogue involving esteem elaborate theological theories arguments; hence, involves well appreciation, dialectical Hegelian sense term. That also justifies adaptation Herder's title book, because Herder do justice different cultural developmental weaker than Habermas's).11 After all, according Habermas, thinking after Kant true form philosophical does reduce philosophy scientistic–naturalistic enterprise, but upholds our understanding ourselves world (Selbst- Weltverständnis, I., 12) whole, continuing pose Kant's four questions. why last paragraph book affirms notion no way transcending given would wither away (verkümmern, II, 807)—and where consciousness meet. main highlight need ongoing constructive (or theology), instead make argument nonreductive philosophy.12 Despite intentional avoidance decline (Verfallsgeschichte) (as highlighted ch. 1 AGP), there aspects language loss, this, let say, negative-dialectical twist I want focus on. concentrate formation moral culminates Kant, transformed following Peirce discursive discourse ethics, central reasonable freedom (vernünftige Freiheit) elaborated second volume something gets lost transforming one—namely, “unconditional” (unbedingtes) “absolute ought” (absolutes Sollen), systematic “gap” (Lücke, 166f.) cannot fully closed again. As result, vernünftige Freiheit suffers weakness—and autonomy, speak, placed question, needs constant motivational support sources (though ones, regression). follows, briefly reconstruct (even more briefly) qualms about it. On regards Kantian post-Kantian conceptions autonomy—of morality—as achievement modern (II, 209 562). Rawls, priority autonomous 98) argues rest its own foundation justification (“selbsttragende ‘vernünftige’ Rechtfertigung”, 131). conception secular, secularistic 133), conscious limits. One limits resides might called semi-translation Christian two kingdoms divine conception, occurred Luther began Augustine 164). Although saved “deontological rational natural law” (“deontologische Substanz von Vernunftmoral Vernunftrecht,” 166), clear separation justice” (rettende Gerechtigkeit) deontological morality, shifting self-given, law 166f.). But leaves duty attraction larger (religious) good could fill tried narrow religion)—and Hegel attempted close Sittlichkeit (ethical life), limited success (a return). elaborates crucial chapter Hume very together Postscript (and subsequent texts). He stresses innovative character self-legislation grounded reason, especially connection political practice Hegel, and, particular, young Hegelians leading up Marx. Yet ground “need” “interest” basically itself, affirming legislative power 308 319). result “motivational deficit reason-based conceptualized cognitivist terms, … intrinsically lacks promise salvation” (“Motivationsschwäche einer vernünftigen, kognitivistisch begriffenen Moral, Haus aus die Antriebskraft des Heilsversprechens fehlt …”; 332). Or, later passage: “After metaphysics decoupled faith knowledge, replace laws binding norms?” (“Was konnte, nach metaphysikkritischen Entkoppelung Wissens vom Glauben, Stelle Autorität göttlichen Willens seiner Gesetze treten, um Bindungskraft moralischer Normen begründen?”; 344). profound “embarrassment being unable find explanation forces originally nourished by sacred complex” (“Verlegenheit säkularen nachmetaphysischen Denkens, Erklärung für Bindungskräfte finden, ursprünglich sakralen Komplex gezehrt hatten”; 347). am skeptical reasons. First, think reading one-sided, sufficiently stress social–practical, Kant. categorical imperative principle self-legislation, yet moral—and “just” rational—idea we (equal) members kingdom ends who responsible each other. Thus, community responsibility built addition assumption bound principles. Reflecting status law-givers means membership equals responsibilities flow that—at least how read Kant.13 Second, justificatory gap (Habermas uses above, special emphasis aspect), “weak” force, charge full give too much credit religiously morality—which thereby almost posited ideal. highly deficient, critics Castellio, Bayle, (and, extent, himself; see 219f.)14 pointed out try show my Toleration Conflict), number really intersubjective oneself obey love fear God—not respect being. whether resulting kind behavior based God, morally motivated sense; heteronomy. authoritarian, imposed higher outside subject him- herself. Third, essential hope becoming worthy grace salvation, then action either (in words) “ethically”—that is, hypothetically, term—motivated, hence Fourth, extremely truly universal, trust nonbelievers persons, they seeing morality—and best “anonymous” persons. And finally, within framework Muslim one, norms trumped imperatives order defend honor God—against blasphemy, long history intolerance demonstrates.15 reasons, practical reason—as others equal authorities, put terms—is neither motive, foundation, content, stronger compared one. Overcoming heteronomous strengthening it, reducing motivation. Autonomous proved strong enough, historically speaking, challenge overcome restrictions allowing modernity unfold historically, stresses. may count proof term, consider advances during period stages was 215ff.). light agree relevant question “the motivating commands” (“die motivierende Kraft guter Gründe sakrale göttlicher Gebote ersetzen kann”; 370); outlined replacement enduring problem advantage. Morality ought authoritarian alien, once liberating life, toward not, primarily, God). claim “detranscendentalizing” move beyond (which possible Peirce) represented progressive step; distinguish “detranscending” step, quite matter. latter limited, despite corresponding transformation Apel it), citizens worlds. Peirce's Habermas's) unlimited justification) shows, meaningful “counterfactual” empirically without transcendental always communicative ideally equals, even empirical matter treated low, undeserving, worthless, silenced.16 truth doctrine worlds translations. “counterfactual element” emancipation: “Only know nobody free until everyone satisfies autonomy” (“Nur erfüllt den Begriff Autonomie, wir wissen, dass niemand wirklich frei ist, bevor es nicht alle sind,” 552).17 If Wissen, detranscendentalization (Detranszendentalisierung) complete elimination (Enttranszendentalisierung). “transcending validity claims” (“transzendierende Geltungsansprüchen,” 584, 596f. Apel) becomes part lifeworld transcends it—from “within,” were 752ff.). must look (“unbedingte”) “absolute” structured 588f.). Rather, accepts itself avoid regression. To equivalent “anchor” exist. view. view, noumenal “good” believers assumed. you owe humans capacity justification, responsiveness, “weaker” “only” 761). Would imply cognitivistic lacks—what exactly? Emotional depth, ethical aspirations, love, God? extramoral motives viewpoint, thus declare those moralities “strong” go leave behind, require anchor external morality. amount contradiction, longer properly speaking. definition motivation inseparable, disagree rely “weak reasons” 804) support.18 There other, additional to—Hume. nutshell, seems that, far enough detranscending regarded binding, whereas, goes detranscendentalizing explicitly questioning implicitly assume, socially relevant, transcendental–moral ends. famous lecture June 19, 2019, Moralität Sittlichkeit),19 returns issue around whole revolves. With earlier writings again addresses abstract embedding” fehlenden motivierenden Einbettung abstrakten Sollens,” 803), reminds “excess” (“Überschuss”) obligation absolute stems background assumptions (p. 804). Because tenable reinterprets expressing “self-understanding beings reason” (“Selbstverständnis Menschen eines autonomen Vernunftwesens,” 805), (some them historical) accept self-understanding; ultimately dependent on—shall ethical—decision fides qua act perhaps leap?) faith. post-Kierkegaardian way, nonmoral, heteronomous, term) consideration identity came motivate action.20 withered away, “oughts” are, hypothetical categorical.21 Ethical values attract guiding lives, whereas bind ethical–moral heroic decisionistic individual, explains using thought. mentioned Hegel's attempt include, modify, preserve (aufheben) state. “thorn flesh life” (“Stachel im Fleisch Sittlichkeit,” 550), individual actions conventional collective democratic 535).22 “objective spirit” sufficient room radically transcend normatively emancipation, individually socially. stressed “Without justifying standards discourse, originated assigned respective participants constituent assembly themselves, convince entire populations arguments legitimization exercise rule.” 554) combines ethic post-Hegelian sittliche processes “that thought, place heads subjects, above communicatively socialized subjects” sich zwar mehr wie bei Kopf einzelnen Subjekts vollziehen, aber ebenso wenig objektiv über Köpfe kommunikativ vergesellschafteten Subjekte hinweg durchsetzen,” 555). “The individual's self-understanding encouragement traces moral-practical embodied increase institutionalized freedoms today especially, practices legal guarantees constitutional states. These reinforce fragile one's powers” 806; “Diese empirischen können das Vertrauen eigenen Kräfte stützen”). suggests complex, moral-political Aufhebung: While radical 597), contain moment transcendence transcendence: institutionalize reflexively generates improve procedurally substantively, establishing superior organization, securing interpreting rights, aiming transnational cooperation. come; through socialization progress. combining Sittlichkeit, summarizes develops lecture, unique, culmination book—and, needless constitutes relationship democracy, laid Between Facts Norms). informed saw “Geschichtszeichen”23 enthusiasm French Revolution indications nature encourage believe improvement. Still, succeed, leans excessively (almost empiricist) interpretation demand speaks “Zumutung,” 805) salvaged encouraged institutions established norms. case, person affirms, independently “distinguished right” (“als richtig ausgezeichnet,” ibid.) used criticize persons; translate consideration. Nor motivationally freedom, collectively, independent regress. We bereft emancipation sake depended success. situation around: increases times despair addition, did every identify regress, ill. end mole stubbornly works realization, citing Kant: “Kant inculcated mentality ….”24 aided “empirical” support, bindingness this; depend nonmoral motives, decisions institutional forms. tirelessly, hard, understand progressive, nature. words, transcendental—that generating odds—has flesh” life guide modernity. likewise, thorn body express mediated, argued above). homeless age, empirical, ethical–political shelter guidance; (rational) hope, despair. reverse translation—quite against spirit general enterprise. Rainer Forst Professor Political Theory Philosophy Director Normative Orders Research Centre Goethe University Frankfurt. Among Normativity Power (OUP 2017), Die noumenale Republik (Suhrkamp forthcoming) Ordnungen (ed. Klaus Günther, Suhrkamp 2021).